Figures
- 3.1
- How complex concepts are successively built up from simpler ones (Goddard, 2018a)
- 3.2
- Proposed semantic molecules of different kinds: universal, approximate, culture-specific
- 3.3
- Semantic template for many English emotion adjectives with verb “to be” (Note 6)
- 3.4
- Template section labels for physical activity verbs (left) and ethnozoological terms (right)
- 3.5
- A partial and schematic semantic template for kin terms
- 4.1
- Fillmore’s main ideas through the history of Frame Semantics
- 4.2
- Partial frame-to-frame relations in FrameNet
- 5.1
- An expression with multiple senses
- 5.2
- Semantic elaborations and extensions from a prototype
- 5.3
- Alternate construals of conceptual content
- 5.4
- Relations among the domains in a matrix
- 5.5
- Variable activation of domains in a matrix
- 5.6
- An example of metonymy
- 5.7
- Alternate profiles on a base
- 5.8
- Effects of profiling
- 5.9
- Relational nouns
- 5.10
- Profiling of relationships
- 5.11
- Alternate profiles within a complex relationship
- 5.12
- The semantic importance of trajector and landmark
- 5.13
- A temporal example of trajector/landmark organization
- 5.14
- The effect of vantage point
- 5.15
- Vantage point vs. trajector and landmark
- 5.16
- A vantage point in time
- 5.17
- Scope and profiling
- 5.18
- Vantage point, scope, and levels of organization
- 5.19
- Maximal vs. immediate scope in time
- 7.1
- Different shapes of an egg: in a refrigerator versus in a skillet and their matching and mismatching phrases.
- 7.2
- left: Spiral stimulus for “towards” and “away” displays; right: Horizontal bar stimulus for “up” and “down” displays (from Kaschak et al., 2005; used by courtesy)
- 7.3
- Action verbs and images involving different body parts (from Bergen, Lau, Narayan, Stojanovic, and Wheeler, 2010; used by courtesy)
- 7.4
- A cortical homunculus, or “cortex person,” illustrating the concept of a representation of the body lying within the brain (from Wikipedia, retrieved Dec 21, 2020)
- 7.5
- The grounding of concepts in motor brain systems: the motor representations of different parts of the body are located in different parts of the motor systems (from Pulvermüller, 2013; used by courtesy).
- 7.6
- Sample images showing internal versus external view (from Brunyé et al., 2009; used by courtesy).
- 7.7
- Sample pictures depicting events as in progress (left) and completed (right) (from Madden & Zwaan, 2003; used by courtesy).
- 9.1
- The lexical network for the noun tree (courtesy of Ronald Langacker)
- 9.2
- The lexical network for the verb run (courtesy of Ronald Langacker)
- 10.1
- Exchange of ovary gesture between explainer (A, right) and addressee (B, left)
- 10.2
- Explainer refashions gestures as he repeats the word dream
- 10.3
- Speaker reformulates a scenario and verbo-gestural gestalt to elicit understanding of his analogy dream for idealism
- 12.1
- Vase/face
- 12.2
- Anatomy of the human eye
- 12.3
- Self/other and Figure-Ground
- 14.1
- Count noun
- 14.2
- Mass noun
- 14.3
- Intonation pattern (group 1)
- 14.4
- Intonation pattern (group 2)
- 14.5
- Some hierarchically distributed functional heads and adverbs
- 15.1
- Between-Space Mapping (from Fauconnier, 1997: 151; used by courtesy)
- 15.2
- Between-Space Mapping of example 23
- 16.1
- Geographic visualization of the ideophonic systems discussed in this chapter. Circles indicate those languages that are mentioned in the body of literature; triangles indicated mimetic lexicons that are analyzed with the proposed semantic map model.
- 16.2
- The image schematic analysis of polang (from Nuckolls et al., 2017; used by courtesy)
- 16.3
- The Idealized Cognitive Model analysis of korokoro (from Lu, 2006; used by courtesy)
- 16.4
- The featural Frame-semantic analysis of sutasuta (from Kiyama and Akita, 2015, used by courtesy)
- 16.5
- The Diachronic Prototype Semantics (mental spaces) analysis of yuèyuè (from Van Hoey, 2020: 259). Thicker lines indicate a higher relative token frequency.
- 16.6
- Simple lexical network of fuwafuwa, based on conventions from Cognitive Grammar (adapted from Lu, 2011)
- 16.7
- The Lexical Iconicity Hierarchy (Akita, 2009; 2013a) and Dingemanse’s (2012) Implicational Hierarchy as a semantic map (Akita, 2013a: 335; Akita and Dingemanse, 2019; used by courtesy). Data sources: Bilkiire (Noss, 1979), Warekena (Aikhenvald, 1998), Chinese (Noguchi, 1995), Germanic (Herlofsky, 1990; Abelin, 1999), Basque (Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 2006; p.c. by Akita), Siwu (Dingemanse, 2011; p.c. by Akita), Japanese (Shibasaki, 2002), Korean (Shibasaki, 2002). Note that the Chinese data is an onomatopoeia dictionary and thus is unlikely to yield phenomimes or psychomimes as is argued in more recent literature. Furthermore, note that cognitive states has been replaced by sensations, and that the less-than sign (<) has been replaced by a greater-than (>) sign in Akita and Dingemanse (2019), inviting more implications regarding inventory size.
- 16.8
- The four zones of the proposed conceptual space, alongside the imagic-diagrammatic cline
- 16.9
- The conceptual space with the central axis highlighted
- 16.10
- The semantic map of Warekena ideophones [ware1255]
- 16.11
- The semantic map of Quechua ideophones [nort2973]
- 16.12
- The semantic map of Basque ideophones [basq1248]
- 16.13
- The semantic map of Japanese ideophones [nucl1643]
- 16.14
- The semantic map of Korean ideophones [kore1280]
- 16.15
- The semantic map of Middle Chinese ideophones [midd1344]
- 16.16
- The semantic map of Japhug ideophones [japh1234]
- 16.17
- The semantic map of Siwu ideophones [siwu1238]
- 16.18
- The semantic map of Wolaytta ideophones [wola1242]
- 16.19
- Quantifying the sensory domains for Japonic, based on stimulus elicitation (McLean, 2020: 18–20) and for Chinese, based on a large scale database (Van Hoey and Thompson, 2020; Van Hoey, 2020: 186)
- 16.20
- Pathways of multisensory ideophones for Japonic and Quechua, as represented in McLean (2020: 33) (used by courtesy)
- 17.1
- EG = encompassing Ground (the auditorium), F(1–4) = Figures; Front = front end of EG, Back = back end of EG. The open-scale conceptualization is illustrated in the diagram on the left, with the gram edessä “in front.” The closed-scale conceptualization is illustrated on the right, with the gram takana “behind.” Figure 1 gives a bird’s-eye view of the inside of an encompassing Ground.
- 17.2
- Field of vision of a human Ground (G) entity (semicircle) and field-based scalar meanings of oikealla “on the right” and vasemmalla “on the left.” For convenience, the open-scale conceptualization is illustrated by the scale inside the rim of the semi-circle, the closed-scale one by the scale outside the rim. F1–F5 are Figures. The arrow originating in G points in its intrinsic “forward” direction (the direction G is facing).
- 17.3
- Scalar meanings of the projective grams in the origin-centric FoRs. The diagram on the left illustrates the directional meaning, the one on the right the centripetal meaning. G = Ground, F (1–5) = Figures, SD = search domain.
- 17.4
- Scalar meanings of the two-mover grams edellä “ahead of” and jäljessä “behind.” F1–F5 are Figures and G is Ground. All participants are moving in the direction specified by the white arrows (= toward the left in the diagram), and the situation is seen from above. The lateral axis projected from the Ground is likewise moving. Grey arrows indicate a potential change in the position of the Figure from the approximative zone into the search domain proper. FRONT and BACK are regions separated from each other by the moving lateral axis. They serve as search domains for the grams edellä “ahead of” and jäljessä “behind,” respectively. The dotted lines indicate approximative zones for the individual Figures.
- 17.5
- The scalar meanings of vierellä “next to.” F1–F4 are Figures moving in the same direction as G (the Ground). The white arrows indicate the direction of their motion. Grey arrow indicates a potential change in the relationship, black arrows the increasing degree on the relevant scale.
- 18.1
- Reference Point Model
- 18.2
- Verbal possession
- 18.3a
- Nominal possession
- 18.3b
- have possession
- 18.3c
- be possession
- 18.4
- Japanese be locative possession
- 19.1
- Components of linguistic data gathering (after Bohnemeyer, 2015: 20)
- 19.2
- Demonstrative Scenes 13 (left) and 16 (after Wilkins, 1999; ©David Wilkins, reproduced with permission)
- 19.3
- Demonstrative Scenes 9 (left) and 12 (after Wilkins, 1999; ©David Wilkins, reproduced with permission)
- 19.4
- Preferred (solid) and accepted (dotted) responses across eight of the scenes. The blue arrow represents the extension of the immediate forms, the red arrow that of the non-immediate ones. The blue letter A marks the position of the addressee in the scenes and the red dot that of the referent (line drawings after Wilkins, 1999; ©David Wilkins, reproduced with permission).
- 19.5
- Item #1 of the “Topological Relations Picture Series” aka BowPed (©Eric Pederson; reproduced with permission)
- 19.6
- Setup of the Ball and Chair picture matching task
- 19.7
- Ball and Chair picture 2.5
- 19.8
- Galloping horse or dead horse? (after Wilkins, 1997: 157; ©David P. Wilkins, reproduced with permission)
- 19.9
- First and last frame of “FIGURE_GROUND 14” (after Levinson, 2001; ©Stephen C. Levinson, reproduced with permission)
- 19.10
- Suspension dispositions described by (clockwise from top left) choh, ch’uy, lech, and t’oy
- 20.1
- Brown and Witkowski’s (1981) implicational hierarchy for basic terms of a botanical nature (X ≺ Y means that X is lexicalized before and possibly more simply than Y)
- 20.2
- Wilkin’s (1996) implicational hierarchy for naming practices affecting body-part terms. Examples of the figurative trope type are shown in small capital letters.
- 23.1
- A (partial) hierarchy of objects
- 23.2
- The object image schema
- 23.3
- The part image schema
- 23.4
- The surface image schema
- 23.5
- The motion image schema
- 23.6
- Johnson’s counterforce schema (after Johnson, 1987: 46)
- 23.7
- The counterforce schema
- 23.8
- The blockage schema (the size of objects represents the amount of mass)
- 23.9
- The diversion (solid arrows), and removal schemas (broken arrow)
- 23.10
- The on image schema
- 23.11
- The above image schema (cf. Langacker, 1987: 219)
- 23.12
- The motion of an animate object schema
- 23.13
- The caused motion of an object schema
- 23.14
- The energy source object causing another object to move.
- 23.15
- The containment image schema
- 27.1
- Diagram of pin-making from L’Encyclopedie, by Diderot and D’Alembert, 1762
- 27.2
- Drawing of a Bedolina petroglyph in Val Camonica, Italy, dating from 400–600 BCE
- 27.3
- Sketch maps of two participants from Tversky and Lee (1999)
- 27.4
- Imprint in stone of foot leading to brothel in Ephesus, now Turkey, dating to 1st c. CE
- 28.1
- B/E organization (after Langacker, 2015a)
- 28.2
- Morphology (plural forms) as composition (adapted from Langacker, 2016a: 418)
- 28.3
- Morphology as B/E organization (adapted from Langacker, 2016a: 419)
- 28.4
- B/E organization of coordination
- 28.5
- B/E organization of augmentation
- 28.6
- B/E organization of adaptation
- 28.7
- Classification of compound words (after Scalise and Bisetto, 2009: 50)
- 28.8
- Iconic relation of adaptation compound verbs (dashed lines represent the iconic correspondence)
- 31.1
- Staticity of one entity
- 31.2
- Conceptual schema of resemble (staticity of multiple entities)
- 31.3
- Agent-patient contact
- 31.4
- Transfer
- 31.5
- Prototypical intransitive verbs of dynamicity
- 31.6
- Spontaneity cline for causative/anticausative alternation (courtesy of Martin Haspelmath)
- 31.7
- The auxiliary selection hierarchy (courtesy of Antonella Sorace)
- 31.8
- Reciprocal contact
- 31.9a
- Spontaneous change of state
- 31.9b
- Caused change of state
- 31.10
- The interaction between theme-oriented punctuality and spontaneity
- 33.1
- Metaphor
- 33.2
- Metaphorical vehicle rising star
- 33.3
- Metonymy
- 33.4
- “Blue helmet” metonymy
- 33.5
- Directive Scenario: S = Speaker, H = Hearer, A = Action, t0 = Utterance time, T = Time axis
- 33.6
- Metonymic pathways from existential question to request
- 33.7
- Metonymic pathways from assertion to request
- 35.1
- Image metaphors in planets and atoms
- 35.2
- The structural metaphor love is a journey (adapted from Valenzuela 2017)
- 35.3
- Use of the lateral axis while saying from beginning to end
- 41.1
- a: source-path-goal image schema (left); b: source-path-goal image schema with a barrier (right)
- 41.2
- a: ASL sign glossed as GOix (ix indicates handshape) (left); b: ASL sign glossed as AGAINST (right) (ASLSignbank, 2021).
- 41.3
- The ASL sign SLOW (ASLSignbank, 2021).
- 41.4
- a: The ASL sign SWITZERLAND in which the signer first produces a downward path movement with a C-handshape across her chest and then a rightward path movement across her chest, to form a large cross (left) (ASLSignbank, 2021). b: shows the Swiss flag with a large white cross on a red background (right).
- 41.5
- ASL sign glossed as THINK-PENETRATE (ASL Signbank, 2021).
- 41.6
- a: ASL sign glossed as CAN-NOT (left); b: MUST (right) (ASL Signbank, 2021).
- 41.7
- Recreation of Shaffer’s grammaticalization pathway of CAN’T and MUST in ASL from OFSL (Shaffer, 2002)
- 41.8
- a: ASL sign glossed as HIT(left); b: BEAT-UP (right) (ASL Signbank, 2021).
- 41.9
- a: ASL sign glossed as BULLY (top left), b: SINGLE-OUT (top right), c:CAPTURE (bottom left), d: CAJOLE (bottom right) (ASL Signbank, 2021).
- 43.1
- The role of attention and the self in the production of conscious experience (CE). The self: (a) The self works on the person’s biological and culturally acquired values. (b) The interactions between the self and the outer world, (c) the inner processes of the self (e. g., routines automatically triggered by unconscious perception or by CE) and the memory system (long term memory, working memory, procedural memory, etc.) provide the content for attentional processing and (d) instructions that pilot attention. (e) The self can also indirectly (dashed arrowed line) affect attention (e.g., when variations of the physical conditions of the body occur). Attention: (f) Attentional processing produces CE. Attention can be piloted by (g) internally or externally generated stimuli and (d) instructions provided by the self as well as by (h) goals defined by CE. Conscious experience: CE (i) engenders temporary or permanent modifications of the self (via the memory system), (h) pilots attention, triggers (j) intentional actions and (c) unconscious processing (e.g., comparison of stimuli), and (k) induces modifications of cultural values.
- 45.1
- Chomsky’s manual (“hands-move-apart”) gesture
Tables
- 1.1
- Taxonomy of Cognitive Semantics
- 2.1
- Chapters in the taxonomy
- 3.1
- Semantic/conceptual primes, English exponents (after Goddard and Wierzbicka, 2014a)
- 3.2
- Selected common polysemies of exponents of semantic primes (data from studies in Goddard and Wierzbicka, 1994; 2002; Peeters, 2006; Goddard, 2008; and Gladkova 2010)
- 4.1
- Sample of the information present in FrameNet
- 4.2
- Examples of the valence patterns of steal.v
- 4.3
- The three senses of argue.v in FrameNet
- 7.1
- Stories used in Spivey and Geng (2001)
- 8.1
- Distinguishing between semantics and pragmatics
- 8.2
- Deriving the conveyed meaning of nine and warm
- 8.3
- A comparison between the Gricean and the usage-based analysis of nine
- 8.4
- Speaker commitment to or alternatives
- 8.5
- (In)compatibility with the inclusive meaning
- 9.1
- Overlap between schematicity and encyclopedicity
- 12.1
- Ground-before-Figure model
- 13.1
- Now is here. Example: “We are in the spring semester.” (Ego’s experience of the current moment is portrayed as figural. “LE” stands for the semantic role Located Entity. The arrow means “maps onto”).
- 13.2
- Now is here. Example: “The spring semester is here” (A Time is portrayed as figural).
- 13.3
- The mapping of sequence is relative position on a path. Example: Prices rise ahead of Christmas.
- 16.1
- Examples of ideophones from around the world (transcription conventions kept from the data sources). Glottocodes have been provided within square brackets.
- 16.2
- Semantic domains for Southeast Asian ideophones (selection based on Watson, 2001). The column “Sense” is a grouping in preparation for the semantic map laid out below.
- 17.1
- Classification of Finnish DM s (after Huumo, 2021)
- 19.1
- The families of data gathering techniques in linguistics (after Bohnemeyer, 2015: 21)
- 19.2
- The semantics of the space-deictic determiners and adverbs of Yucatec according to Hanks (1990) (after Bohnemeyer, 2012: 107)
- 19.3
- A classification of elicitation techniques by stimulus and response type (after Bohnemeyer, 2015: 22)
- 19.4
- Responses for hat “tear” (after Bohnemeyer, 2015: 24)
- 19.5
- Responses for xot “cut” (after Bohnemeyer, 2015: 24)
- 20.1
- Three examples transliterated into English of referential terms derived from relational expressions (whole clauses) via overt nominalization or covert inferencing based on attested patterns from three polysynthetic languages of North America [nmlz = nominalizer]
- 20.2
- Three unique paths to lexicalization for each of two native concepts (skull, turtle) and two terms of acculturation (pear, money) taken by different Indigenous languages of North America, as transliterated into English.
- 20.3
- Examples of constructionalization in several North American Indigenous languages (transliterated into English) [cf. Rice, 2009; 2012; 2014; and to appear, for many more examples of constructionalization in UUMIL s]
- 21.1
- A schematic 2 × 2 co-occurrence frequency table
- 21.2
- A classification of the most widely-used association measures
- 23.1
- Componential analysis of the core meaning of fruit
- 23.2
- Systematic relations between types of prototypicality
- 23.3
- Componential analysis of the polysemy of fruit
- 28.1
- Productivity of coordination compound verbs
- 28.2
- Productivity of augmentation compound verbs
- 28.3
- Productivity of adaptation compound verbs
- 28.4
- The productivity of the coordination compound [[ ]V-matou (put.on)]V
- 28.5
- The productivity of the augmentation compound [[ ]V-komu (go.into)]V
- 28.6
- The productivity of the adaptation compound [[ ]V-au (do.each.other)]V
- 28.7
- V2s in Japanese adaptation compounds that originally represent manual operation
- 28.8
- The parallelism between the quasi-spatiotemporal relationship in B/E organization and linguistic properties
- 30.1
- Comparison of parameters across two-way typology and its revisions
- 30.2
- Language types classified on the basis of the macro-event hypothesis
- 31.1
- Interaction between agent-oriented punctuality and the number of involved thematic roles
- 33.1
- Metaphorical illocution: S give H S’s IA(p)
- 33.2
- Metaphorical illocution: S give H S’s promise that p
- 33.3
- Metonymically and metaphorically motivated illocution: H have S’s promise that p
- 33.4
- The metaphorical and metonymical structure of give someone one’s word
- 33.5
- The metaphorical and metonymical structure of you have my word (that p)
- 33.6
- Embodied performatives: from bodily motion to abstract activities
- 33.7
- Indirect speech acts: Terminology
- 33.8
- Action scenario
- 38.1
- A prominence shift (example 1) (images in Table 38.1, 38.2, and 38.3 from the film “Freedom Riders,” courtesy of director Stanley Nelson)
- 38.2
- A prominence shift (example 2)
- 38.3
- A prominence shift (example 3)
- 38.4
- A perspective shift (image from the film “Give Up Tomorrow,” courtesy of director Michael Collins)
- 41.1
- Hopper and Thompson’s 1985 Transitivity Parameters (recreated by author)